In this paper, I shall discuss some of the physical aspects of the passion,
or suffering, of Jesus Christ. We shall follow Him from Gethsemane, through
His trial, His scourging, His path along the Via Dolorosa, to His last dying
hours on the cross.
I became interested in this about a year ago when I read an account of the
crucifixion in Jim Bishop's book, 'The Day Christ Died.' I suddenly realized
that I had taken the crucifixion more or less for granted all these years -
that 1 had grown callous to it's horror by a too-easy familiarity with the
grim details - and a too distant friendship with Him. It finally occurred
to me that as a physician I didn't even know the actual immediate cause of
death. The gospel writers don't help us very much on this point, because
crucifixion and scourging were so common during their lifetime that they
undoubtedly considered a detailed description totally superfluous - so we
have the concise words of the Evangelists: "Pilate, having scourged Jesus,
delivered Him to them to be crucified, and they crucified Him."
I am indebted to many who have studied this subject in the past and especially
to a contemporary colleague, Dr. Pierre Barbet, a French surgeon who has done
exhaustive historical and experimental research and has written extensively
on the subject.
The infinite psychic and spiritual suffering of the incarnate God in atonement
for the sins of fallen man I have no competence to discuss; however, the
physiological and anatomical aspects of our Lord's passion we can examine in
some detail ... what did the body of Jesus of Nazareth actually endure during
those hours of torture?
This led me first to a study of the practice of crucifixion itself; that is,
the torture and execution of a person by fixation to a cross. Apparently, the first
known practice of crucifixion was by the Persians. Alexander and his generals brought
it back to the Mediterranean world - to Egypt and to Carthage. The Romans apparently
learned the practice from the Carthaginians and (as with almost everything the Romans did)
rapidly developed a very high degree of efficiency and skill in carrying it out. A number
of Roman authors (Livy, Ciceri, Tacitys) comment on it. Several innovations and modifications
are described in the ancient literature: I mention only a few which may have some bearing here.
The upright portion of the cross (or stipes) could have the cross-arm
(or patibulum) attached two or three feet below its top - this is what we
commonly think of today as the classical form of the cross (the one which
we have later named the Latin cross); however, the common form used in our
Lord's day was the Tau cross (shaped like the Greek letter Tau or like our
letter T). In this cross the patibulum was placed in a notch at the top of
the stipes. There is fairly overwhelming archeological evidence that it was
on this type of cross that Jesus was crucified.
The upright post, or stipes, was generally fixed in the ground at the site
of execution and the condemned man was forced to carry the patibulum,
apparently weighing about 110 pounds, from the prison to the place of
execution. Without any historical or biblical proof, Medieval and Renaissance
painters have given us our picture of Christ carrying the entire cross.
Many of these painters and most of the sculptors of crucifixes today show
the nails through the palms. Roman historical accounts and experimental
work have shown that the nails were driven between the small bones of the
wrist and not through the palms. Nails driven through the palm will strip
out between the fingers when they support the weight of a human body. The
misconception may have come through a misunderstanding of Jesus' words to
Thomas, "Behold My hands." Anatomists, both modern and ancient, have always
considered the wrist as part of the hand.
A titulus, or small sign, stating the victims crime was usually carried at
the front of the procession and later nailed to the cross above the head.
This sign with its staff nailed to the top of the cross would have given it
somewhat the characteristic form of the Latin cross.
The physical passion of the Christ begins in Gethsemane. Of the many aspects
of this initial suffering. I shall only discuss the one of physiological
interest; the bloody sweat. It is interesting that the physician of the group,
Luke, is the only one to mention this. He says, "And being in agony, He prayed
the longer. And His sweat became as drops of blood, trickling down upon the
ground" (Luke 22:44).
Every attempt imaginable has been used by modern scholars to explain away
this phrase, apparently under the mistaken impression that this just doesn't
happen.
A great deal of effort could be saved by consulting the medical literature.
Though very rare, the phenomenon of Hematidrosis, or bloody sweat, is well
documented. Under great emotional stress, tiny capiIlaries in the sweat
glands can break, thus mixing blood with sweat. This process alone
could have produced marked weakness and possible shock.
We shall move rapidly through the betrayal and arrest; I must stress again
the important portions of the Passion story are missing from this account.
This may be frustrating to you, but in order to adhere to our purpose of
discussing only the purely physical aspects of the Passion this is necessary.
After the arrest in the middle of the night, Jesus was brought before the
Sanhedrin and Caiaphas, the high Priest; it is here that the first physical
trauma was inflicted. A soldier struck Jesus across the face for remaining
silent when questioned by Caiaphas. The palace guards then blindfolded Him
and mockingly taunted Him to identify them as they each passed by, spat on
Him, and struck Him in the face.
In early morning Jesus, battered and bruised, dehydrated, and exhausted from
a sleepless night, is taken across Jerusalem to the Praetorium of the
Procurator of Judea, Pontuius Pilate. You are, of course, familiar with
Pilate's action in attempting to pass responsibility to Herod Antipas,
the Tetrarch of Judea. Jesus apparently suffered no physical mistreatment
at the hands of Herod and was returned to Pilate.
It was then, in response to the cries of the mob, that Pilate ordered
Bar-Abbas released and condemned Jesus to scourging and crucifixion. There
is much disagreement among authorities about scourging as a prelude to
crucifixion. Most Roman writers from this period do not associate the two.
Many scholars believe that Pilate originally ordered Jesus scourged as
his full punishment and that the death sentence by crucifixion came only in
response to the taunt by the mob, that the Procurator was not properly
defending Caesar against the pretender who claimed to be the King Of the Jews.
Preparations for the scourging are carried out. The prisoner is stripped of
His clothing and His hands tied to a post above His head. It is doubtful
whether the Romans made any attempt to follow the Jewish law in this matter
of scourging. The Jews had an ancient law prohibiting more than forty lashes.
The Pharisees, always making sure that the law was strictly kept, insisted
that only thirty-nine lashes be given. (In ease of a miscount, they were sure
of remaining within the law.)
The Roman legionnaire steps forward with the flagrum (or fagellum) in his
hand. This is a short whip consisting of several heavy, leather thongs with
two small balls of lead attached near the ends of each. The heavy whip is
brought down with full force again and again across Jesus' shoulders, back
and legs. At first the heavy thongs cut through the skin only. Then, as the
blows continue, they cut deeper into the subcutaneous tissues, producing
first an oozing of blood from the capillaries and veins of the skin and
finally spurting arterial bleeding from vessels in the underlying muscles.
The small balls of lead first produce large, deep bruises which are broken
open by subsequent blows. Finally the skin of the back is hanging in long
ribbons and the
entire area is an unrecognizable mass of torn, bleeding tissue. When it is
determined by the centurion in charge that the prisoner is near death, the beating
is finally stopped.
The half-fainting Jesus is then untied and allowed to slump to the stone
pavement, wet with His own blood. The Roman soldiers see a great joke in
the provincial Jew claiming to be a King. They throw a robe across his
shoulders and place a stick in His hand for a scepter. They still need a
crown to make their travesty complete. A small bundle off flexible branches
covered with long thorns, (commonly used for firewood) are plaited into the
shape of a crown and this pressed into His scalp. Again there is copious
bleeding (the scalp being one of the most vascular areas of the body).
After mocking him and striking Him across the face, the soldiers take the
stick from His hand and strike Him across the head, driving the thorns
deeper into His scalp. Finally, they tire of their sadistic sport and the robe is torn from His
back.
This had already become adherent to the clots of blood and serum in the
wounds, and its removal, just as in the careless removal of a surgical
bandage, causes excruciating pain ... almost as though He were again being
whipped - and the wounds again begin to bleed.
In deference to Jewish custom, the Romans return His garments. The
heavy patibulum of the cross is tied across His shoulders, and the procession
of the condemned Christ, two thieves and the execution detail of Roman
soldiers, headed by a centurion; begin its slow journey along the Via Dolorosa.
In spite of His efforts to walk erect, the weight of the heavy
wooden beam, together with the shock produced by copious blood loss, is
too much. He stumbles and falls. The rough wood of the beam gouges into
the lacerated skin and muscles of the shoulders. He tries to rise, but
human muscles have been pushed beyond endurance.
The centurion, anxious to get on with the crucifixion, selects a
stalwart north African onlooker, Simon of Cyrene, to carry the cross.
Jesus follows, still bleeding and sweating the cold, clammy sweat of shock.
The 650 yard journey from the Fortress Antonia to Golgotha is finally
completed.
Jesus is again striped of His clothes - except for a loin cloth which is
allowed the Jews.
The crucifixion begins. Jesus is offered wine mixed with Myrrh, a mild
analgesic mixture. He refuses to drink. Simon is ordered to place the
patibulum on the ground and Jesus is quickly thrown backward with His
shoulders against the wood.
The legionnaire feels for the depression at the front of the wrist.
He drives a heavy, square, wrought-iron nail through the wrist and deep
into the wood. Quickly he moves to the other side and repeats the action,
being careful not to pull the arms too tightly, but to allow some flexion
and movement.
The patibulum is then lifted into place at the top of the stipes and the
titulus reading, "Jesus of Nazareth, King of The Jews" is nailed in place.
The left foot is pressed backward against the right foot, and with both
feet extended, toes down, a nail is driven through the arch of each, leaving
the knees moderately flexed. The victim is now crucified. As He slowly sags
down with more weight on the nails in the wrist, excruciating, fiery pain
shoots along the fingers and up the arms to explode in the brain - the nails
in the wrist are putting pressure on the median nerves. As He pushes Himself
upward to avoid this stretching torment, He places His full weight on the
nail through His feet, Again, there is the searing agony of the nail tearing
through the nerves between the metatarsal bones of the feet.
At this point, another phenomenon occurs. As the arms fatigue, great waves
of cramps sweep over the muscles, knotting them in deep, relentless,
throbbing pain. With these cramps comes the inability to push Himself upward.
Hanging by His arms, the pectoral muscles are paralyzed and the intercostal
muscles are unable to act. Air can be drawn into the lungs, but cannot be
exhaled. Jesus fights to raise Himself in order to get one short breath.
Finally, carbon dioxide builds up in the lungs and in the blood stream and
cramps partially subside. Spasmodically, He is able to push Himself upward
to exhale and bring in the life-giving oxygen. It was, undoubtedly during
these periods that He uttered the seven short sentences which are recorded.
The first, looking down at the roman soldiers casting lots for His garments,
"Father, forgive them for they know not what they do."
The second, to the penitent thief, "Today thou shalt be with me in Paradise."
The third, looking down at the terrified, grief-stricken John, (the beloved
Apostle), He said, "Behold thy mother," and looking to Mary, His mother,
"Woman, behold thy son."
The fourth cry is from the beginning of the 22nd Psalm, "My God, My God why
hast Thou forsaken me?"
Hours of this limitless pain, cycles of twisting, joint-rending cramps,
intermittent partial asphyxiation, searing pain as tissue is torn from His
lacerated back as He moves up and down against the rough timber; then another
agony begins. A deep crushing pain deep in the chest as the pericardium slowly
fills with serum and begins to compress the heart. Let us remember again the
22nd Psalm (the 14th verse). "I am poured out like water, and all my bones are
out of joint; my heart is like wax; it is melted in the midst of my bowels."
It is now almost over - the loss of tissue fluids has reached a critical
level - the compressed heart is struggling to pump heavy, thick sluggish blood
into the tissues - the tortured lungs are making a frantic effort to gasp in
small gulps of air. The markedly dehydrated tissues send their flood of stimuli
to the brain.
Jesus gasps His fifth cry, "I thirst."
Let us remember another verse from the prophetic 22nd Psalm: "My strength is
dried up like a potsherd; and my tongue cleaveth to my jaws; and thou hast
brought me into the dust of death."
A sponge soaked in Posca, the cheap, sour wine which is the staple drink of
the Roman Legionnaires, is lifted to His lips. He apparently doesn't take
any of the liquid . The body of Jesus is now in extremis, and He can feel
the chill of death creeping through His tissues. This realization brings out
His sixth words - possibly little more than a tortured whisper. "It is finished."
His mission of atonement has been completed. Finally He can allow His body
to die.
With one last surge of strength, He once again presses His torn feet against
the nail, straightens His legs, takes a deeper breath, and utters His seventh
and last cry, "Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit."
The rest you know. In order that the Sabbath be not profaned, the Jews asked
that the condemned men be dispatched and removed from the crosses.
The common method of ending a crucifixion was by crurufracture, the
breaking of the bones of the legs. This prevented the victim from pushing
himself upward, the tension could not be relieved from the muscle of the
chest, and rapid suffocation occurred. The legs of the two thieves were
broken, but when they came to Jesus they saw that this was unnecessary.
Apparently to make sure of death, the legionnaire drove his lance through
the fifth interspace between the ribs, upward through the pericardium and
into the heart. The 34th verse of the 19th chapter of the Gospel of John;
"and immediately there came out blood and water." Thus there was an escape
of watery fluid from the sac surrounding the heart and blood from the
interior of the heart. We, therefore, have rather conclusive post-mortem
evidence that our Lord died, not the usual crucifixion death by suffocation
but of heart failure due to shock and constriction of the heart by fluid in
the pericardium.
Thus, we have seen a glimpse of the epitome of evil which man can
exhibit toward man - and toward God. This is not a pretty sight and is
apt to leave us despondent and depressed. How grateful we can be that we
have a sequel, a glimpse of the infinite mercy of God toward man - the
miracle of the atonement and the expectation of eternal life.
C. Truman Davis, "The Crucifixion of Jesus. The Passion of Christ from a Medical Point of View," Arizona Medicine 22, no. 3 [March 1965]: 185) Dr. Davis was a graduate of the University of Tennessee College of Medicine. He was a practicing ophthalmologist, a pastor, and author of a book about medicine and the Bible.
"A Physician Analyzes the Crucifixion by Dr. C. Truman Davis was copied by
permission of Mark G. McNutt, from the Calvary Chapel of Santa Maria web site
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